Introduction to French Translation and Interpretation

Introduction to French Translation and Interpretation Translation and interpretation are the ultimate jobs for people who love language. However, there are a lot of misunderstandings about these two fields, including the difference between them and what kind of skills and education they require. This article is an introduction to the fields of translation and interpretation. Both translation and interpretation (sometimes abbreviated as T I) require superior language ability in at least two languages. That may seem like a given, but in fact, there are many working translators whose language skills are not up to the task. You can usually recognize these unqualified translators by extremely low rates, and also by wild claims about being able to translate any language and subject. Translation and interpretation also require the ability to accurately express information in the target language. Word for word translation is neither accurate nor desirable, and a good translator/interpreter knows how to express the source text or speech so that it sounds natural in the target language. The best translation is one that you dont realize is a translation because it sounds just like it would if it had been written in that language to begin with. Translators and interpreters nearly always work into their native language, because its too easy for a non-native speaker to write or speak in a way that just doesnt sound quite right to native speakers. Using unqualified translators will leave you with poor-quality translations with mistakes ranging from poor grammar and awkward phrasing to nonsensical or inaccurate information. And finally, translators and interpreters need to understand the cultures of both the source and target languages, in order to be able to adapt the language to the appropriate culture. In short, the simple fact of speaking two or more languages does not necessarily make a good translator or interpreter - theres a lot more to it. It is in your best interest to find someone who is qualified and certified. A certified translator or interpreter will cost more, but if your business needs a good product, it is well worth the expense. Contact a translation/interpretation organization for a list of potential candidates. Translation vs. Interpretation For some reason, most laypeople refer to both translation and interpretation as translation. Although translation and interpretation share the common goal of taking information that is available in one language and converting it to another, they are in fact two separate processes. So what is the difference between translation and interpretation? Its very simple. Translation is written - it involves taking a written text (such as a book or an article) and translating it in writing into the target language. Interpretation is oral - it refers to listening to something spoken (a speech or phone conversation) and interpreting it orally into the target language. (Incidentally, those who facilitate communication between hearing persons and deaf/hard-of-hearing persons are also known as interpreters. So you can see that the main difference is in how the information is presented - orally in interpretation and written in translation. This might seem like a subtle distinction, but if you consider your own language skills, the odds are that your ability to read/write and listen/speak are not identical - you are probably more skilled at one pair or the other. So translators are excellent writers, while interpreters have superior oral communication skills. In addition, spoken language is quite different from writing, which adds a further dimension to the distinction. Then theres the fact that translators work alone to produce a translation, while interpreters work with two or more people/groups to provide an interpretation on the spot during negotiations, seminars, phone conversations, etc. Translation and Interpretation Terms Source languageThe language of the original message. Target languageThe language of the resulting translation or interpretation. A language  - Native languageMost people have one A language, although someone who was raised bilingual may have two A languages or an A and a B, depending on whether they are truly bilingual or just very fluent in the second language. B language  - Fluent languageFluent here means near-native ability - understanding virtually all vocabulary, structure, dialects, cultural influence, etc. A certified translator or interpreter has at least one B language unless he or she is bilingual with two A languages. C language  - Working languageTranslators and interpreters may have one or more C languages - those which they understand well enough to translate or interpret from but not to. For example, here are my language skills: A - EnglishB - FrenchC - Spanish So in theory, you can translate French to English, English to French, and Spanish to English, but not English to Spanish. In reality, you only work from French and Spanish to English. You wouldnt work into French, because you recognize that my translations into French leave something to be desired. Translators and interpreters should only work into the languages that they write/speak like a native or very close to it. Incidentally, another thing to watch out for is a translator who claims to have several target languages (in other words, to be able to work in both directions between, say, English, Japanese, and Russian). It is very rare for anyone to have more than two target languages, although having several source languages is fairly common. Types of Translation and Interpretation General translation/interpretation is just what you think - the translation or interpretation of non-specific language that does not require any specialized vocabulary or knowledge. However, the best translators and interpreters read extensively in order to be up-to-date with current events and trends so that they are able to do their work to the best of their ability, having knowledge of what they might be asked to convert. In addition, good translators and interpreters make an effort to read about whatever topic they are currently working on. If a translator is asked to translate an article on organic farming, for example, he or she would be well served to read about organic farming in both languages in order to understand the topic and the accepted terms used in each language. Specialized translation or interpretation refers to domains which require at the very least that the person be extremely well-read in the domain. Even better is training in the field (such as a college degree in the subject, or a specialized course in that type of translation or interpretation). Some common types of specialized translation and interpretation are financial translation and interpretationlegal translation and interpretationliterary translationmedical translation and interpretationscientific translation and interpretationtechnical translation and interpretation Types of Translation Machine translationAlso known as automatic translation, this is any translation that is done without human intervention, using software, hand-held translators, online translators such as Babelfish, etc. Machine translation is extremely limited in quality and usefulness. Machine-assisted translationTranslation that is done with a machine translator and a human working together. For example, to translate honey, the machine translator might give the options  le miel  and  chà ©ri  so that the person could decide which one makes sense in the context. This is considerably better than machine translation, and some argue that it is more effective than human-only translation. Screen translationTranslation of movies and television programs, including subtitling (where the translation is typed along the bottom of the screen) and dubbing (where the voices of native speakers of the target language are heard in place of the original actors). Sight translationDocument in the source language is explained orally in the target language. This task is performed by interpreters when an article in the source language is not provided with a translation (such as a memo handed out at a meeting). LocalizationAdaptation of software or other products to a different culture. Localization includes translation of documents, dialog boxes, etc., as well as linguistic and cultural changes to make the product appropriate to the target country. Types of Interpretation Consecutive interpretation  (consec)The interpreter takes notes while listening to a speech, then does his or her interpretation during pauses. This is commonly used when there are just two languages at work; for example if the American and French presidents were having a discussion. The consecutive interpreter would interpret in both directions, French to English and English to French. Unlike translation and simultaneous interpretation, consecutive interpretation is commonly done into the interpreters A and B languages. Simultaneous interpretation  (simul)The interpreter listens to a speech and simultaneously interprets it, using headphones and a microphone. This is commonly used when there are numerous languages needed, such as in the United Nations. Each target language has an assigned channel, so Spanish speakers might turn to channel one for the Spanish interpretation, French speakers to channel two, etc. Simultaneous interpretation should only be done into ones A language.

Biography of Nikita Khrushchev

Biography of Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Khrushchev (April 15, 1894- September 11, 1971) was the leader of the Soviet Union during a critical decade of the Cold War. His leadership style and expressive personality came to represent Russians hostility toward the United States in the eyes of the American public. Khrushchevs aggressive stance against the West culminated in the standoff with the United States during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Fast Facts: Nikita Khrushchev Full Name: Nikita Sergeyevich KhrushchevKnown for: Leader of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)Born: April 15, 1894, in Kalinovka, RussiaDied: September 11, 1971 in Moscow, RussiaSpouses Name: Nina Petrovna Khrushchev Early Life Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was born April 15, 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in southern Russia. His family was poor, and his father at times worked as a miner. By the age of 20 Khrushchev had become a skilled metalworker. He hoped to become an engineer, and married an educated woman who encouraged his ambitions. Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Khrushchevs plans changed profoundly as he joined the Bolsheviks and began a political career. During the 1920s he rose from obscurity to a position as an apparatchik in the Ukrainian Communist Party. In 1929, Khrushchev moved to Moscow and took a position with the Stalin Industrial Academy. He rose to positions of increasing political power in the Communist Party and was undoubtedly complicit in the violent purges of the Stalin regime. During World War II, Khrushchev became a political commissar in the Red Army. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Khrushchev worked at rebuilding Ukraine, which had been devastated during the war. He began to gain attention, even to observers in the West. In 1947 The New York Times published an essay by journalist Harrison Salisbury headlined The 14 Men Who Run Russia. It contained a passage on Khrushchev, which noted that his current job was to bring the Ukraine fully into the Soviet fold and that, in order to do so, he was carrying out a violent purge. In 1949, Stalin brought Khrushchev back to Moscow. Khrushchev became involved in the political intrigue within the Kremlin which coincided with the Soviet dictators failing health. Rise to Power Following Stalins death on March 5, 1953, Khrushchev began his own rise to the top of the Soviet power structure. To outside observers, he was not viewed as a favorite. The New York Times published a front-page article following Stalins death citing four men expected to succeed the Soviet leader. Georgy Malenkov was presumed to be the next Soviet leader. Khrushchev was mentioned as one of about a dozen figures believed to hold power within the Kremlin. In the years immediately following Stalins death, Khrushchev managed to outmaneuver his rivals, including notable figures such as Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. By 1955, he had consolidated his own power and was essentially leading the Soviet Union. Khrushchev chose not to become another Stalin, and actively encouraged the process of de-Stalinization that followed the dictators death. The role of the secret police was curtailed. Khrushchev was involved in the plot which ousted the feared head of the secret police, Lavrenti Beria (who was tried and shot). The terror of the Stalin years was denounced, with Khrushchev evading his own responsibility for purges. In the realm of foreign affairs, Khrushchev aggressively challenged the United States and its allies. In a famous outburst aimed at Western ambassadors in Poland in 1956, Khrushchev said the Soviets would not have to resort to war to defeat its adversaries. In a quote that became legendary, Khrushchev bellowed, Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you. On the World Stage As Khrushchev enacted his reforms within the Soviet Union, the Cold War defined the era internationally. The United States, led by World War II hero President Dwight Eisenhower, sought to contain what was viewed as Russian communist aggression in trouble spots around the world. In July 1959, a relative thaw in Soviet-American relations occurred when an American trade fair opened in Moscow. Vice president Richard Nixon traveled to Moscow and had a confrontation with Khrushchev that seemed to define the tensions between the superpowers. The two men, standing next to a display of kitchen appliances, debated the relative virtues of communism and capitalism. The rhetoric was tough, but news reports noted that no one lost their temper. The public argument became instantly famous as The Kitchen Debate, and was reported as a tough discussion between determined adversaries. Americans got an idea of Khrushchevs stubborn nature. A few months later, in September 1959, Khrushchev accepted an invitation to visit the United States. He stopped in Washington, D.C., before traveling to New York City, where he addressed the United Nations. He then flew to Los Angeles, where the trip seemed to veer out of control. After expressing abrupt greetings to local officials who welcomed him, he was taken to a movie studio. With Frank Sinatra acting as the master of ceremonies, dancers from the film Can Can performed for him. The mood turned bitter, however, when Khrushchev was informed that he would not be allowed to visit Disneyland. The official reason was that local police couldnt guarantee Khrushchevs safety on the long drive to the amusement park. The Soviet leader, who was not used to being told where he could go, erupted in anger. At one point he bellowed, according to news reports, Is there an epidemic of cholera there or something? Or have gangsters taken control of the place that can destroy me? At one appearance in Los Angeles, the mayor of Los Angeles, made reference to Khrushchevs famous we will bury you remark from three years earlier. Khrushchev felt he had been insulted, and threatened to return immediately to Russia. In Iowa, Khrushchev enjoyed his first hot dog. Getty Images   Khrushchev took a train northward to San Francisco, and the trip turned happier. He praised the city and engaged in friendly banter with local officials. He then flew to Des Moines, Iowa, where he toured American farms and happily posed for the cameras. He then visited Pittsburgh, where he debated with American labor leaders. After returning to Washington, he visited Camp David for meetings with President Eisenhower. At one point, Eisenhower and Khrushchev visited the presidents farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Khrushchevs tour of America was a media sensation. A photo of Khrushchev visiting an Iowa farm, smiling broadly as he waved an ear of corn, appeared on the cover of LIFE magazine. An essay in the issue explained that Khrushchev, despite appearing friendly at times during his trip, was a difficult and unyielding adversary. The meetings with Eisenhower had not gone very well. The following year, Khrushchev returned to New York to appear at the United Nations. In an incident that became legendary, he disrupted the proceedings of the General Assembly. During a speech by a diplomat from the Philippines, which Khrushchev took as insulting to the Soviet Union, he removed his shoe and began rhythmically banging it against his desktop. To Khrushchev, the incident with the shoe was essentially playful. Yet it was portrayed as front-page news that seemed to illuminate Khrushchevs unpredictable and threatening nature. Cuban Missile Crisis Serious conflicts with the United States followed. In May 1960, an American U2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet territory and the pilot was captured. The incident provoked a crisis, as President Eisenhower and allied leaders had been planning for a scheduled summit meeting with Khrushchev. The summit occurred, but it went badly. Khrushchev accused the United States of aggression against the Soviet Union. The meeting essentially collapsed with nothing accomplished. (The Americans and Soviets eventually made a deal to swap the U2 planes pilot for an imprisoned Russian spy in America, Rudolf Abel.) The early months of the Kennedy administration were marked by accelerated tensions with Khrushchev. The failed Bay of Pigs Invasion created problems, and a June 1961 summit between Kennedy and Khrushchev in Vienna was difficult and produced no real progress. President Kennedy and Khrushchev at their Vienna summit.   Getty Images In October 1962, Khrushchev and Kennedy became forever linked in history as the world suddenly seemed to be on the brink of nuclear war. A CIA spy plane over Cuba had taken photographs which showed launch facilities for nuclear missiles. The threat to Americas national security was profound. The missiles, if launched, could strike American cities with virtually no warning. The crisis simmered for two weeks, with the public becoming aware of the threat of war when President Kennedy gave a televised speech on October 22, 1962. Negotiations with the Soviet Union eventually helped defuse the crisis, and the Russians ultimately removed the missiles from Cuba. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchevs role in the Soviet power structure began to decline. His efforts to move on from the dark years of Stalins brutal dictatorship were generally admired, but his domestic policies were often seen as disorganized. In the realm of international affairs, rivals in the Kremlin viewed him as erratic. Fall From Power and Death In 1964 Khrushchev was essentially deposed. In a Kremlin power play, he was stripped of his power and forced to go into retirement. Khrushchev lived a comfortable retired life in a house outside Moscow, but his name was purposely forgotten. In secret, he worked on a memoir, a copy of which was smuggled out to the West. Soviet officials denounced the memoir as a forgery. It is considered an unreliable narration of events, yet it is believed to be Khrushchevs own work. On September 11, 1971, Khrushchev died four days after suffering a heart attack. Though he died in a Kremlin hospital, his front-page obituary in The New York Times noted that the Soviet government had not issued an official statement on his passing. In the countries he had delighted in antagonizing, Khrushchevs death was treated as major news. However, in the Soviet Union, it was largely ignored. The New York Times reported that a small item in Pravda, the official government newspaper, reported his death, but avoided any praise of the man who had dominated Soviet life for a decade. Sources: Khrushchev, Nikita. UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography, edited by Laura B. Tyle, vol. 6, UXL, 2003, pp. 1083-1086. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 8, Gale, 2004, pp. 539-540. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Taubman, William. Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich. Encyclopedia of Russian History, edited by James R. Millar, vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2004, pp. 745-749. Gale Virtual Reference Library.